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A few years later, however, I got a letter from Jim, after he had published the double helix with Francis Crick I could not disagree more.

Payne lost the toss, but he never lost his faith in the centrality of research programs in the mission of the university. He was a small, bald, nut-brown man with a soft voice, but he made a big personal impression on me. Some time during my second semester he came into my little office in Science Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, which happened to be next to the Zoology Office, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette commanded me to follow him into his private lair.

He had just received my class grades from the first semester - near the C-level intolerable for a graduate student - and also the results of my GRE Graduate Record Examination scores Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette which were in the high 90s percentiles.

He set me in front of his desk and told me in unequivocal terms to send home those philosophy and poetry books that littered my desk. I must find myself a research sponsor, and give science a chance. Otherwise there was no point in my returning to Bloomington Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette another year. Fernandus Payne was a committed talent scout, who considered it his primary function as an administrator to select prime candidates both as faculty and as students.

He claimed at one time to have met every zoology graduate student in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette significant research laboratory in America before the student finished a thesis. Though that claim seems preposterous given the scale of universities today, it provides a commentary on the sparseness of the research establishment prior to WWII, and the scale of academic research before NSF and NIH began supporting university research.

An example of the commitment of the Indiana administration to disinterested academic research is Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette by the story of Alfred C. Kinsey had been a faculty member of the Zoology Department for a number of years when I arrived.

He was a popular teacher, and an ardent student of evolution who enthusiastically focussed Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the classification of parasitic wasps. As a consequence of his experience as a guest in a class for Marriage Preparation, he acquired a new research interest. He was an open-minded free-thinking person who encouraged students to ask questions about Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette that were not commonly covered in biology texts or in classrooms, but were standard fare in dormitories, with the lights turned low.

How much variation occurs in the length of the human penis" What proportion of couples have intercourse before marriage" How does the frequency of sexual activity Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette with age" What fraction of the American population has had a homosexual experience". He Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette with the students in his classes, and invented a system of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette private oral interviews.

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He believed that his skills were adequate to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette valid answers even from reluctant respondents, particularly if he could have access to them before they were aware Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette his objectives.

He gradually refined his techniques and expanded his sampled populations to include most sectors of modern society, from prostitutes and prison inmates to corporate board rooms. When I came to Bloomington inKinsey was focussing on graduate students, particularly on graduate students in biology. As I reported for the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette time Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the Zoology office on the fifth floor of the Science Building, the departmental secretary asked if I had met any of the Zoology faculty.

She offered to take Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette instantly to see Dr. Kinsey, whose office was on the fourth floor just below, beside the elevator. The elevator was Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette unreliable relic enclosed in a wire cage that was operated by pulling on one of a pair of cables inside the cage. She explained that it was simpler to walk down the stairs. We returned to the office and I asked which faculty member I should call on next. She answered. He only wants to meet new students the first day they are on campus.

The episode was puzzling until I became better acquainted with some of the more seasoned graduate students. Kinsey was Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette his sample of young male Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette. He believed that anyone who had been on campus more than 24 hours would have learned what Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was up to and would have prepared defenses.

I was never in fact introduced to Kinsey, though I read his Sexual Behavior in the Human Male which appeared amidst great notoriety two years later, without any input from me. Kinsey did discover who I was a few weeks later when I was embarrassed by having to call on him for help in an awkward situation.

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The comparative anatomy Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was on the fifth floor of Science Hall, and Francis Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette and I were cleaning up the lab from a late shift one dark Friday evening, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the preserved rats and sharks in cheese cloth and stacking them in steel bins.

When we went to the elevator to go home to our respective dorms, I was overtaken by an impulse to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the "up" cable in the cage instead of the "down" cable.

The elevator responded appropriately and carried us to the attic, a dark dusty storage space with no lights at all. My curiosity satisfied, I pulled the down cable, repeatedly, but the lift would not budge. The building seemed to be deserted, and cell phones had not been invented. All we could do was to yell ever more hoarsely down the elevator Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette to a deserted building.

Doc Kinsey, who Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette unconventional hours, had returned to his office to investigate some esoteric Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and heard our cries for help. He called the maintenance crew, who brought a ladder and extracted us through a trap door in the ceiling.

He leaned against the wall, watching us with what we interpreted as a sneer, but never said a word to us. He probably had too much information on the shenanigans of biology graduate students by this time to be very interested in what might have been going on the dark attic of Science Hall. But I never felt very comfortable with him. Kinsey undertook an investigation into aspects of human behavior that at the time was considered by many to be out of bounds for public discussion, and unsuitable for academic inquiry or classroom discussion.

Before many years had passed, however, the information was seen as relevant for responses to a changing society and to a major crisis in public health. The book was a best seller, though not at the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette because of its public health significance.

Wells insisted that the topic and the methodology were suitable for Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette research, and refused to terminate or censure the studies. Kinsey subsequently established an institute for research in human sexuality, published a series of significant books, and assembled archives of pornographic films, books and art objects - reputed to be matched in size and quality only Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the great Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in the Vatican.

His rare open-houses generated a near stampede on Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette. The person who became my mentor, and the most significant person in my Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette life, was not one that I was even aware of at first. Tracy Morton Sonneborn was also something of a sexologist, but he got his kicks looking in a microscope instead of interviewing naive human informants. His scientific research was focussed on Paramecium, a unicellular ciliated animal commonly found in pond water.

Fernandus Payne had discovered Sonneborn in his scouting surveys, while he was working as a long term research associate in the laboratory of Herbert Spencer Jennings at Johns Hopkins, in Baltimore.

Jennings was an important figure in the development of genetics in America, though his contributions have escaped the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette dominating the disciplinary accounts. Jennings discovered experimental biology when he spent time in Europe Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the s, particularly at Jena and Naples.

In the process he also described the behavior of Paramecium under experimentally defined conditions. His mechanistic description of the "avoiding reaction", evoked when paramecia encounter an obstacle or a toxic substance, adopted an explanation that rejected the vitalism common at the time. Returning to America, he joined forces with people such as Jacques Loeb and C.

Whitman in supporting experimental biology, research stations, and physico-chemical interpretations of biological phenomena.

He enthusiastically welcomed the rediscovery of Mendel, contributed to theoretical population genetics, and made beginnings in microbial genetics with protozoa. He was nearly alone, however, except for a few other independent biologists, such as L. Dunn the mouse geneticist, in resisting publically the allure of genetic determinism as a solution to societal problems Kevles, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette American Eugenics movement had flared in the first quarter of the century, fueled by industrial barons and elite educators, who underwrote the development of genetics laboratories and research programs in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette heredity.

Instead of acknowledging the aberrations of the eugenics movement, American geneticists organized a new genetics society The Genetics Society of Americawrote a new genetics textbook Sinnott and Dunn - Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Principles of Geneticsand created a bowlderized history that papered over the shameful record, along with Jennings. I learned of this potted history only much later. The older genetic society Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette through private Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette with a much lower profile.

Thus, two professional organizations for geneticists were active when I finished my Ph. Both published journals describing genetic research, and I joined both. The Journal of Heredity in later years was devoted largely to practical applications such as the breeding of plants and animals, while Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was the major outlet of experimental laboratory studies.

Some 20 years later I was nominated to be the President of the Genetic Society of America, but lost the election to Charles Yanofsky, a prominent Neurospora geneticist. After another decade or so I became president of the American Genetics Association, and only then began seriously to query the origins and significance of the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette American genetics societies.

What Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette discovered was a shock to me, and I discussed that history in my presidential address Nanney, The final chapter in my involvement with professional Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette societies Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in The annual meeting of the GSA was scheduled on the campus of the University of Illinois, in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and I was asked to chair the local Program Committee for the meeting.

The topic I Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette most enthusiastic about - though I had some difficulty with my local committee - was?

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Genetics - A Century of a Science in Society?. The subject matter was to include Francis Galton, the cousin of Darwin who founded the Eugenic Movement, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette before the rediscovery of Mendel, and included the American eugenics movement that flourished before the Nazi applications brought it into disrepute. The program I proposed was intended to include the eclipse of the AGA as the major professional society of genetics and its replacement by the GSA.

I suggested speakers who were historians and philosophers, and I had approached Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette current president of the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette for joint sponsorship of this one symposium. At the meeting of the governing board in Boston, I met a stone wall. None of the board members had ever heard of the American eugenics movement, or of the related conflicts Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette involuntary sterilization, and racial biases in immigration policy.

One of the board members suggested that the story was a fabrication. They adamantly opposed enlisting historians and philosophers to talk about genetics. Their Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette judgement was Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, even if my summary were historically correct, the eugenics movement should not be discussed in a public forum. Its disclosure could only damage the profession. The board disapproved this symposium topic. And I resigned from the program committee.

The career of T. Sonneborn is an Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette study in its circumstantial trajectory. I assume that his family came to America in the later s among the escapees of Russian pogroms. They, along with the Irish-Catholics fleeing from the Potato Famine, were sharing the difficulties of assimilation into the predominantly English-Protestant establishment.

After an early predilection for a career as a rabbi, Sonneborn became fascinated with experimental biology, and completed a Ph. Even a decade later, when Jennings would have liked to ease Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette into Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette chair he was about to vacate at Hopkins, he told Sonneborn that the "The time has not yet come when a Jew can be offered a professorship at Hopkins.

Fortunately, Jennings had obtained from private sources a long term grant for the support of genetic studies on Paramecium, and these funds allowed Sonneborn to continue his research career, if he was willing to study paramecia. Yet the funds supported the laboratory of the chief American opponent of the eugenics movement, and they provided the resources to nurture the development of an Ashkenazi Jew, at a time American higher education was significantly biased against Jews.

Even though Sonneborn continued to work through tight economic times, the years at Hopkins were not easy financially, with no raises, few job prospects, and a growing family.

But Sonneborn was doing what he enjoyed, he persisted, and finally, after eight years with little apparent success, he discovered mating types in paramecia Sonneborn, This discovery allowed him to conduct controlled mating experiments on the transmission of several interesting cellular characteristics. His break-through was near the beginning of microbial Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, the next major epoch in the history of genetics.

Controlled matings of fungi, of algae, of bacteria and even viruses were to be achieved within the next decade, and Sonneborn leapt from being a research associate without tenure to the leader of a significant new technology. Fernandus Payne was soon on his doorstep with an offer of a tenured professorship at Indiana. My first social event after my arrival in Bloomington was a departmental banquet honoring Zoology Professor Muller, who had just returned from Stockholm.

Muller Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette a participant in the fly-room at Columbia, a brilliant experimentalist as well as a social activist. The breadth Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette his synthesis of biology, built around his Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette concept of the gene, gave coherence Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the entire field of biology. Although the premature and biased claims of the eugenics movement had been rejected or repressed by most geneticists, Muller was still dedicated to improving human health and welfare through genetic science and biological engineering.

He was a proponent of sperm banks, supplied by superior men such Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Nobel Laureateswhose genetic heritage could become a public resource. His concern over the deterioration of the human genetic endowment through physical and chemical abuse, led him to public attacks Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette atomic bombs and bomb testing, and against the irresponsible use of diagnostic and therapeutic x-rays by medical doctors.

Like Sonneborn, Muller was of Jewish background. He was also sensitive to having grown up in poverty in New York. During his course on mutation in the late 40s, he still expressed bitterness over having had to compete in the laboratory with A. Sturtevant, whose patrician background allowed him to give his full attention to research. Muller Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette to interrupt his studies to teach courses at Cornell Medical to make some money Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette tuition.

Even after winning the Nobel Prize, Muller Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette bringing scraps of dated paper to class, and laying claims to ideas from the fly lab that were commonly attributed to Sturtevant or to Calvin Bridges, the other members of the triad that with him had established with convincing logic and brilliant experiments Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette location of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette on chromosomes. His comprehensive theoretical treatment began with the origin and evolution of the universe, as it was understood at the time.

It then focused on the chemical and physical conditions prevailing Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the nascent Earth before the Urey-Miller experimentsproceeded through the origin of life as realized in the appearance of the primordial gene.

He argued that the gene was nucleic acid; it was the Master Molecule, the dominant feature of living systems, all else of which is derivative. He paid scant attention to the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis which had been essentially completed byProstitutes Gif-sur-Yvette which he considered a secondary matter. Muller had had an extraordinary career. He taught at Rice University in Texas for a time, but he was restless and sought a broader social arena.

He was taken up with the theoretical promise of a socialist society and went to Russia in the 30s where he believed his science would be properly appreciated and implemented. He realized belatedly the merits of democracy when the charlatan breeder Trofim Denisovich Lysenko gained the support of Stalin and suppressed modern genetics Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette bourgoise, materialist nonsense.

Muller escaped from the genetic purge in the USSR to a haven with friends in Edinburgh, and then to Amherst, before getting the call to Bloomington.

Though Muller came to Indiana to a steady job and high recognition, he was not warmly received as a teacher or colleague. His Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette lectures were brilliant monologues, but he did not welcome questions, and many students claimed to be confused. He had sufficient research funds from various private agencies to run enormous experiments in well equipped laboratories. But very few graduate students were incorporated into his research family.

Some of those who did join as graduate students were neglected, unable to speak to the chief for weeks at a time. Nucleocytoplasmic Interactions. Nearly all of his studies Sonneborn, using controlled matings with paramecia yielded results that seemed to contradict the universality of the Mendelian modes usually revealed in higher organisms, and contrary to the dogma of nuclear genic preeminence in the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette economy.

When mating type VII cells are mixed under appropriate conditions with mating type Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette cells, they exchange male pronuclei and establish chromosomally identical zygote nuclei in each of the conjugating mates. The Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette separate, dismantle their old nuclear apparatus the polygenomic macronucleus and construct a new macronucleus. Under conventional mendelian expectations the genetically identical exconjugants would be Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette to give rise to clones of identical hereditary characteristics.

Occasionally exconjugants failed to separate at the normal time and were held together by an open cytoplasmic bridge. Under these circumstances both exconjugants usually gave rise to clones of mating type VIII.

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The clear implication of the experiments was that mating types were influenced by some cytoplasmic mechanism, and were not controlled directly by mendelian genes. A second set of studies was triggered by the observation that Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette stocks of variety 4 from different origins were mixed, those from one source were killed by some toxic substance produced by the other.

Killers and sensitives could be induced to conjugate without unilateral death under special conditions, and the mode of hereditary transmission could be assessed. Curiously, the exconjugant killer exconjugant produced a killer clone and the sensitive exconjugant gave a sensitive clone. Again, when cytoplasmic bridges were observed or inducedboth exconjugant clones were found to be killers. The killer-sensitive distinction involved the cytoplasm in some unexplained way; the nucleus did not seem to be in direct control of this trait, even though a nuclear gene, K, was essential for its manifestation.

Sonneborn began a third set of breeding studies, in this case involving responses to antiserum induced by injecting paramecia into rabbits. Strain A cells were immobilized in dilute antiserum prepared against it, but strain B cells would not. Strain Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, but not strain A cells, were immobilized by anti-B serum. When strain A and strain B were crossed under appropriate Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, the strain A exconjugant produced a type A clone, and the type B exconjugant gave a type B clone.

When cytoplasmic exchange was induced during conjugation, the exconjugant clones were usually identical, both A or both B, depending on environmental conditions. The results of these three studies were well established and widely publicized byparticularly Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette a well-known summary in the first volume of Advances in Genetics. That presention was followed by a series of brilliant invited lectures to various learned societies.

Sonneborn Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was lionized. The life cycle of Paramecium was diagrammed in every genetics Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the killer Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was discussed in every genetics course. He served as president of several professional Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette including the Genetics Society of America, the Society of American Naturalists, and the American Institute of Biological Sciences.

Times had obviously changed when this "permanent post doc" from Hopkins was offered a professorship at Harvard. I only know of that offer because Sonneborn asked me, some time in I believe, if I would rather have a degree from Indiana or from Harvard. Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of the first messages Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette microbial genetics, and a brilliant exploitation of a unique experimental system, was that heredity at the level of the cell does not Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette simple mendelian rules, but is under the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of unexplained cytoplasmic mechanisms of a very different nature.

The Paramecium Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette challenged the hegemony of the nucleus, and in particular the genic centrality that Muller had built into his theoretical masterpiece. The Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was ripe for conflict, and could have become explosive. Muller, from what has been mentioned before about his personality, can be seen as a brilliant but insecure scientist, focussed on his own Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette and showing little tolerance of dissent.

His speech at the Zoology Department banquet inwhen he returned from accepting the Nobel Prize, was an eloquent evocation of scientific idealism. Prizes, he claimed, "are not the objective of scientific careers, but are accidental byproducts, welcome but irrelevant. Sonneborn eventually had to exclude Muller from visits to his laboratory because of their frequency and their contentious nature. Muller felt obliged to block the message coming from the Paramecium laboratory, but he had to do it vicariously, so as not to bring an open breach between colleagues.

One episode in the Muller-Sonneborn conflict played itself out while I was in Bloomington. John R. Preer Jr. His graduate work focussed in the physical basis of the killer character.

The Sonneborn lab at this time was determined to resolve Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette apparent conflict between nuclear and cytoplasmic inheritance. Sonneborn had showed, for example, that mendelian genes are responsible for mating type potentialities, particularly the differences between one-type and two-type stocks of variety 1 P.

And he demonstrated that the capacity for becoming a killer cell was associated with a nuclear gene, K, even though the killer trait could be spread by infection under certain conditions to appropriate strains.

Indeed bacterial stains soon showed visible particles kappa in killer cytoplasm that was stained with DNA-specific Feulgen dyes.

Muller was delighted. Kappa particles were bacterial symbionts. He was glad to accept parasites as the explanation for cytoplasmic inheritance, and to dismiss all the cases as similarly trivial deviations of transmission patterns - not fundamental challenges to the supremacy of the gene.

He did not go public Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette this interpretation, however. Instead he apparently invited an old friend from the fly room, Edgar Altenburg, to come to Indiana for a visit, and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette spend time with Sonneborn, learning the emerging details of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette kappa story.

Sonneborn welcomed Altenburg to his lab, and freely told him about current developments in the killer story. Altenberg, who had written a popular but conventional genetics text popular at the time, expressed no reservations about the significance of his cytoplasmic stories during his visit.

However, he quickly prepared Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette review of the killer story, and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette it in The American Naturalist. It was a skillful polemic that developed the parallels between the emerging studies of plastid inheritance in plants and symbiotic algae and bacteria in ciliated protozoa.

Altenburg pressed the dismissal of cytoplasmic inheritance as misleading relics of infections that were of no theoretical relevance in terms of genetic fundamentals Altenburg, Sonneborn believed that Altenberg had pretended to be interested and supportive in order to ferret out details on the visit that might Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette used to discredit the Paramecium work. The already strained relations between Muller and Sonneborn were damaged even further.

This little episode in the Paramecium tale is linked to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette episodes in the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette exploration of the microbial world. The distinction between infection and heredity was seized upon by Joshua Lederbergthe enfant terrible of bacterial genetics, who had first demonstrated genetic Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette and visible conjugation in Escherichia coli. The more flexible genetic systems of microbes allowed genetic transfer of parts of genomes under special circumstances and revealed phenomena that required redescription of the essential properties of the genetic apparatus and blurred the very words used to describe genetic relationships.

Were inducible phages part of the genome of the bacteria that harbored them, or were they parasites" The issue of symbioticism in both heredity and development did Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette go away.

Indeed, Lynn Margulis eventually made the episodic fusion of alien genomes the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of her vision of saltatory evolution, and of her career.

The issues with respect to the Sonneborn laboratory, however, were not resolved by a Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of the killer story. Sonneborn was unwilling to sweep the mating type and serotype phenomena under the same rug Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the killer phenomena, and to dismiss them as irrelevant in the discussion Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette cellular governance; what is the role of the cytoplasm in the exploitation of multiple capabilities in the heterogeneous Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette environment" What is the role of the cytoplasm in the acquisition of cellular specificities in the development of metazoa".

Why was Muller hostile to the efforts of the Sonneborn lab" One of the challenges of being pushed into the spotlight of public attention is to find an appropriate encore. Part of the problem had to do with his instrument. Drosophila was not the useful tool that it had once been, and that it would be again. Drosophila was at the center of experimental genetics in the s, as each of its chromosomes was marked with genes, and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was demonstrated to be the consequence of physical exchanges of chromosome parts between homologues.

But once its cytogenetic contributions had been consolidated in the 20s, it became less interesting as a research object.

It is true that Dobzhansky and other population geneticists by the s had brought new uses to Drosophila in the union of genetics and evolution that was called the evolutionary synthesis. The Drosophila population studies, however, had run their course pretty much byand Muller had little active role in them anyway.

The demand for Drosophila geneticists had slumped; universities were now recruiting bacterial and virus geneticists. Drosophila genetics was a depressed industry until after molecular genetics had matured, and the homeotic mutants of Ed Lewis again resurrected what had become a morbid organismic technology.

Muller was married to Drosophila, but the fruit fly had no suitable flying Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in the s.

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Muller may have been displaying some organismic envy as microbial genetics began to move into the spot light. At this Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Seymour Benzer was doing remarkable genetic tricks with T4 Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette at Purdue, over in West Layfayette, Indiana, before he moved to California to begin his innovative studies in behavior genetics.

He was invited to Bloomington sometime about to give a talk. In his lecture he described inversions, deletions, transpositions, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette other genetic rearrangements in the virus, and then commented: "All these things were first described in Drosophila, as Dr.

Muller will be the first to tell you". As a graduate student I was not ordinarily privy to relationships behind the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette facade, but I suspected that external events sometimes had cryptic roots. Julian Huxley, who popularized the modern evolutionary synthesis, was a close friend of Muller. He once described Muller as the "greatest all-round biologist the 20th century Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette produced".

During this time he was brought to Bloomington by Muller as Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette visiting professor, and gave a series of lectures, which he subsequently published as a book, Evolution in Action It turned out Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette American college students were not particularly impressed with his style, and graded him a terrible lecturer. The chemistry lecture hall was packed for his first lecture, but after a few sessions only the students who had signed for credit were found clumped in the front rows of a near empty hall.

Another notable faculty member at Indiana in the late 40s was Salvador E. LuriaProstitutes Gif-sur-Yvette refugee from Italy, who was laying the foundations Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette bacteriophage Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette with the German Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, Max Delbruck Delbruck had been trained as a physicist but was attracted to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette challenge of explaining the properties of living systems, using more sophisticated analysis and simpler biological systems.

Whether the book was a cause, a symptom, or an excuse, scientific interest was shifting away from the technology that permitted the atomic bomb and toward the technology Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette would make life more comprehensible.

Physicists made major contributions to the development of molecular biology at this time, and Delbruck was the intellectual focus of much of this integration. Luria and Delbruck worked together to establish a quantitative methodology for bacterial and viral genetics, using bacteriophage mutants, visualized in plaque morphology and host range restrictions, to study mutation and recombination in the simplest forms of life known.

They argued for an essential similarity in the mechanisms of replication and of genetic change in viruses and higher organisms, and hence for the appropriateness of extrapolation from the simple to the complex. Delbruck, who had been at Vanderbilt for awhile, moved to Cal Tech where he finished his Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, while Luria came to Bloomington. The shortage of trained biologists that brought me into graduate study, and that provided professorships in American universities for European professionals, was also affecting the economic status of the professions, and encouraging faculty mobility.

In order to recruit a faculty Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in an emerging discipline, universities were required to, and were willing, to offer salaries and facilities better than they could provide to all the faculty members who were already in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette. The result was that major improvements in benefits could usually come to an individual only with a move. Most faculty members moved at least once after their first appointment, and some moved several times.

Luria moved from Bloomington to Urbana, taking with him another Indiana faculty member - I. Gunsalus - when the University of Illinois undertook a major development in molecular genetics in the s. This frequent movement of staff between universities, effected by what Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette called the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette System", made biological research much more homogeneous across the nation, but it undercut local traditions and loyalties. The demographic forces also placed priority on national visibility in research, and deflected universities from their committment to education.

The economic status of the research professions leaped ahead, but at a cost to local communities of scholars and to educational programs. Though Luria and Delbruck were separated institutionally, that seemed to make little difference.

They presided over a coherent and rapidly growing international "phage group" that frequently convened at various places. Luria was a careful and patient experimentalist, capable of conducting tedious and lengthy experiments. Delbruck was the critic of the group who insisted on theoretical rigor.

They were to share the Nobel Prize for their work with A. Hershey in The membrane between graduate students and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was almost impervious in those days.

Sonneborn, at least, was very reluctant to discuss any administrative matters or faculty relationships with his students.

Only Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette later years did Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette occasional let slip observations about relationships that were not entirely as they seemed on the surface. The "information" I received from the graduate student rumor mill was that Luria was an autocratic director, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette his left-wing sympathies made his collegial relationships suspect, and that he had a bad case of Nobelitis.

My impression was that relationships among the faculty members were so sensitive as to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette a "hands off" policy with respect to their students. Only one time did I go to Muller with a problem about my thesis. I was curious about the basis of "selfer" clones, and was considering an explanation based on the properties of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette compound macronuclei. I wanted to estimate the number of assorting units in an "unstable" mixed nuclear system in paramecium by measuring the rate of production of pure units at cell division.

Muller brushed the question off as incalculable. He said that he had himself tried to deal with an equivalent problem back in the 20s and had consulted Sewall Wright about its solution on a long driving trip. It was a problem that was eventually resolved by simulation on an early computer at Michigan in a collaboration with physicist and a mathematician Allen and Nanney, Schensted,and a different protozoan - Tetrahymena.

Luria, like Muller, did not attract many graduate students. He had an active laboratory that included several workers scheduled for distinction, such as Renato Dulbecco, who later also received a Nobel Prize for his work on the genetics of cancer. His most famous student was James Dewey Watson, who arrived on Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette a year after I came to Indiana.

Though Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette he applied for admission, Jim had declared his intention to study ornithology, he quickly sensed that the excitement and the prizes were in the explosion occurring Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette genetics.

Jim eventually chose to do his thesis with Luria. As he explained, one has to have an "instinct for the jugular", and he saw in the Luria-Delbruck program the opportunities that would provide him more rapid advances than through the murky phenomenal waters of cytoplasmic inheritance. Before that, however, while we were being vastly stimulated by the faculty interactions at the weekly Biology Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, Jim expressed an interest in fooling the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette authorities.

He suggested that together we might pretend to be doing some secret research, and after a period of time might announce that we would like to speak at the Biology seminar. We never Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette what the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette seminar might be about, but as a cover story we decided to do some radiation studies. We inactivated the killing activity of breis of killer cells, assayed by exposing sensitive cells to diluted Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette and counting the killed cells.

We ran the x-ray exposures late at night Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette most people were leaving the lab, and I would count the killed cells by removing the blistered rounded corpses with a micropipette, over the next few days.

Jim wanted ample room to construct the hoax from whole Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette. But then Luria sent Watson to Cal Tech or Cold Spring Harbor for polishing with others in the phage group, and Jim never got around to preparing his announcement designed to astonish and amaze, at least not until he got his hands Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette another and more substantial data Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette.

I was left with a set of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette on the inactivation of the toxin paramecin associated with the killer particle kappa.

The killing action was much harder to Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette than was the replicative ability of the kappa particle. I concluded that only a fraction of the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette particle was necessary for the killing action, and stuck the data Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette my thesis, along with my mating type and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette studies, when I submitted it.

A few years later, however, I got a letter from Jim, after Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette had published the double helix with Francis Crick He had come upon his copy of the data Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette paramecin inactivation, and wondered if I had ever published the study.

He offered to write a paper about it if I had no intentions of doing so. Well, I had written a paper about the work and submitted it in my thesis, but I had never sent it out to be reviewed for publication.

So I submitted the paper to Physiological Zoology, whose reviewers complained about "half-finished pieces of work that graduate students sometimes submit"but they agreed to publish it I added an acknowledgement to "J. Watson who ran the Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette machine for the experiments". I am not aware that Luria, any more than Muller, was responsible for any major scientific advances after he came to Bloomington. Nobel Prizes are usually awarded for work done much earlier, for work that has already been acclaimed in terms of prestige and economic status.

The scramble of univerisities for "stars" who Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette received or might be candidates for prizes and other marks of public recognition is often disappointing in terms of continued scientific or educatiional contributions. Their more mature contributions tend to be in scientific administration.

Though Luria was technically in the Bacteriology Department, the biology faculty in Bloomington was effectively one faculty at the graduate level. A more contrasting set of courses could scarcely be imagined. They differed not only in their organismic focus but much more strikingly in their approaches to the subject. Every year he would choose a different organism as the basis of his Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, Neurospora, or Chlamydomonas, Saccharomyces or Paramecium.

It always began with a description of the organism, and of the phenomena that were manifested, evaluated and quantified. He tried to read every paper ever written describing the phenomena and their analysis. He would Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette find errors in published tables, mistakes in calculations. He would raise queries about biochemical inferences, pose alternative interpretations, and in some cases correspond with the authors of those papers.

He would provide a critique of a field of research seldom provided outside the small group of experimentalists Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette had done the original work. He may well have known more about the status of "Genetics of Microorganisms" than anyone else Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the world at the time.

He painted with a broad brush, selected telling details to support his interpretations, but always from secondary sources. He may have read as much as Sonneborn, and as widely, but with very different intent. When I later met A. Sturtevant at Cal Tech, I was surprised to see Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette much temperamental differentiation was possible among the participants in the fabled fly lab.

Sturtevant did most of his experiments in his head, sitting with his feet on his desk and his pipe in his mouth. He ran small well-designed experiments looking for particular theoretical consequences. Muller ran a fly-factory with large laboratories and many assistants. He was so eager for more data to crunch that he recruited the students in his lab Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette to run parts of his big experiments, though not until the end of the course were we ever allowed to understand the design or the purpose of the experiment.

Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette critical readings were called for, his assistants came in to verify our classifications and counts. He spent a lot of time in class on semantics.

I particularly remember the long discussion of whether a virus is "alive", attended with an expansion on the essential characteristics of "life". At the time I had never met Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Delbruck, or even heard that much about him. I had little inkling of his role in phage genetics.

Delbruck came to Indiana and gave a lecture in I had Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette on for an extra year after completing my degree requirements, because I had a fellowship, and a girlfriend, and was having fun.

He had come in from Chicago with the characteristic marks in speech, dress and behavior of an adolescent Chicago kid. I quickly realized that I had got it all wrong. Jim Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, among other things, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette an intellectual chameleon; he had the capacity to absorb completely the nuances of a scientific disciplin e, and to express them unselfconsciously down to his very skin.

Jim Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Luria and Delbruck and phage genetics before Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette on the Europe, to Denmark, and the Cavendish. The next time I saw him, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was with Francis Crick at Woods Hole one summer after the double helix had been announced. Even in his swim suit Jim Watson looked and sounded like a premature evocation of the Beatles, long hair and all; he was now as English as Francis Crick.

Those who had not known him before thought he was British, He had absorbed another scientific Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and was expressing it as his own. I had a tangential brush with Max Delbruck several years later. I have to admit that I too was fascinated by phage genetics, though I was exposed to it only after having made a commitment to Sonneborn. I decided not to take the fellowship, however, but to accept an assistant professorship at Michigan.

Years later, still a bit dazzled by the glamour of the phage legend, I wrote to Cal Tech again asking for permission to come to Cal Tech for my first sabbatical leave from the University in Ann Arbor in George Beadle, who was then Chairman of the Biology Division, suggested that it might be more appropriate for me to work with Ray Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and to continue my work with Tetrahymena, utilizing the antisera against Tetrahymena that Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette and his associates had accumulated.

This was a highly satisfactory suggestion, and led to productive research and to a warm and continuing relationship. And I did get to meet Max Delbruck, sort of. I gave a lecture at Caltech, on mating type determination in Tetrahymena thermophila.

Delbruck took a prominent seat near Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette front on the aisle before the lecture began. I had been warned that Delbruck delighted in skewering guest speakers, and to be prepared. As I remember, Delbruck asked Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette question with a self evidence answer at the end of the lecture.

I never had a personal conversation with him. At the time I was at Cal Tech, I was growing impatient with what I considered the sluggishness of the administration at Michigan, and was considering alternatives. I Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in fact resign from my position at Michigan during my sabbatical, a procedure I do not recommend, though some get away with it without penalty.

I half hoped Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Cal Tech might be interested in a ciliate geneticist, but that was not to be. I have sometimes wondered if Delbruck had any influence in these matters, and whether I could have been a better salesman at the lecture he attended.

The courses of Sonneborn, Muller and Luria provided distinctive display cases of modern genetics against which Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette students would test their mettle and shape their ambitions.

Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette do not want to give the impression that biology at Indiana was monolithically genetic, however. The largest group of graduate students when I arrived was probably that directed by William Breneman, who Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette endocrinological research on chickens. Breneman had been an undergraduate student at Indiana, and a football hero. He was the dramatic and highly popular instructor of the general zoology course.

His lecture on the time course of evolution - From Kalamazoo to You - was famous. The students were greeted one day with a string stretched from the podium of the lecture hall across the room and out the north window, in the direction of Kalamazoo, Michigan.

Attached to the string at appropriate points were ribbons symbolizing important events in the history of the universe and of life.

Many had to take teaching positions in smaller educational institutions with heavy teaching loads and less satisfactory research facilities.

The last ribbon, inches from the podium, represented the appearance of humans? Another substantial group of students was attached to Ralph Cleland whose research was also relevant to the interests of genetics students, and provided some perspective into the diversity of genetic mechanisms employed by other organisms.

Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette was a prominent botanical geneticist, and National Academician, whose research reputation was based on the rationalization of unusual patterns of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette transmission found in Oenothera lamarckiana, the evening primrose.

See Cleland Hugo de Vries, the important Dutch plant breeder at the turn of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette century, one of the "rediscoverers" of Mendel in fact, had observed dramatic saltatory changes involving multiple traits in Oenothera. De Vries developed his Mutationtheorieas an alternative to Darwinism.

This theory was a notable challenge for a time during the emerging consensus concerning genetics and evolution, one of the? Consequently, when chromosomes pair homologously in meiosis, they line up in a single giant ring catenationand separate at anaphase into only two Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of gametes.

This limited recombination pattern is affected by a system of balanced lethals, and is scrambled by occasional recombination events, that break up the linked complexes and result in the sudden appearance of several new phenotypes. Oenothera had made its mark on genetic research, and helped confirm the Chromosome Theory. It, like many other useful organismic explorations, has been forgotten in the rush of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in the second half Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the century.

The Sonneborn Research Group. When Fernandus Payne told me to select a research mentor, or get lost, I began seriously to consider my options Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the faculty. I thoroughly enjoyed Bill Ricker, the ichthyologist who taught the biological statistics course, but he was probably the worst teacher I ever had, and I cared nothing about fish. Indiana had a long tradition in ichthyology, going back to David Starr Jordan, who had gone to California to head up the new college being Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette by Leland Stanford with railroad money.

A good story, particularly a good fish story, is too good to waste. He bounced back to Canada and a distinguished career in Canadian Fisheries. Cole had just written a clever analysis of the perils of interpreting population cycles.

The catchy title, "The Horn of the Unicorn", brought him national attention and he soon moved Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Cornell. In the summer of Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette tried to shore up my fiscal base and taught three courses: Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, Embryology and Genetics, all with labs and no assistants.

By this time I had been awarded a national predoctoral Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and no longer had to teach courses at Indiana. So I decided that it was probably time to cut my ties with OBU. The forbidden word was "evolution". Trent advised that the problem was not so much the concept as the word, and that "phylogeny" was a perfectly suitable substitute.

Tired of the heavy teaching loads in a small college, and with my predoctoral fellowship in hand, I scheduled a public lecture on? Darwin and Genesis?. That Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the trick. I was not invited to return for the following summer session, and the prospect of an eventual permanent appointment at Oklahoma Baptist vanished in the summer breeze.

By this time, in fact, I had chosen a research advisor, strictly by the process of elimination. I had only seen Sonneborn at the weekly biology seminars, where the professors crossed swords with visiting speakers, and with each other.

I knew that Sonneborn worked with paramecia, but I had had no formal introduction to any microbial life. I had heard that he studied cytoplasmic inheritance, but I had no perspectives on the significance of that topic.

I found out where his office was located - in the Chemistry Building - knocked on the door and entered.

I told Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette my name, and asked if he would serve as my research advisor. Apparently Dean Payne had briefed him on the qualifications of the graduate students even before I arrived. He asked me no questions but led me into the big open research lab, pointed Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette a desk on which sat a dissecting scope, and a water heater with a beaker of water on it.

He went into another room and returned with a test tube rack containing two test tubes, labelled 51VII and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette, and containing an amber liquid.

He handed me a couple of reprints describing basic methodologies, and said that I should feel free to ask any questions as they arose. Ruth Dippell was probably involved.

Ruth published papers with Tracy, and before he retired she acquired a Ph D and a teaching position at Indiana.

The only other regular member of the lab at Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette time was Bob Geckler. Johnny Preer had completed his work on the kappa particles before I joined the lab, so I did not get acquainted with him until years later.

At any rate the work consisted of an attempt to induce mutations in paramecia. Mainly, that first semester I was absorbed with my own interactions with the protozoa; pulling pipettes, making crosses, isolating conjugating pairs, separating the exconjugants into individual depression slides, isolating caryonides when exconjugants divided, Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette starved cultures for autogamy with aceto-carmine stains, growing tube cultures to sexual maturity, testing for mating types.

Within weeks I was Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette engaged with the challenge of asking questions to the microscopic animals and interpreting the answers that they provided. The experience Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette directly experiencing vital phenomena in an interactive way transformed my Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette of science and fixed my philosophy of biological education for the rest of my career. My total absorption in the manipulation of paramecia blocked out most other activities, and was probably responsbile for my burning the bridges at OBU the next summer.

I spent late hours in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette lab instead of in the Rogers N lounge playing bridge. Nearly a year after coming into the lab I proudly presented him with a summary of my studies of mating type inheritance in variety 4 of P.

He handed it back to me the next day, saying Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette could save some time by reading the literature.

Letters To the Editor

But even at the time, I felt that he really approved my autonomy, and was pleased to have a truly independent confirmation of his work on the subject. The Sonneborn Seminars. Students were beginning to reach graduate schools in Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette numbers.

In the fall of suddenly Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Sonneborn lab was filled. There were Richard W. Siegel, Henry M. There wa s even a Chinese student, Pao Kuo Chao, contending with the English language, American food, and Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette different kind of academic hierarchy. Post Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette associates were also beginning to come in and participate. The Sonneborn laboratory had become a scientific society, which was called to order at sundown on Friday nights at the modest home of Ruth and Tracy Sonneborn on S.

Mitchell Street. Ruth Sonneborn was the hostess who lubricated the connections, provided good cheer and refreshments. Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette took the unscientific spouses out of sight and sound when the business meeting began. Sometimes Tracy talked. Sometimes students reported on published papers that were considered significant to the goals of the lab.

Later the students would present their own data and be questioned about how the experiments were conducted and how they were interpreted. As approached, and the centennary of the rediscovery of Mendel loomed ahead, geneticists from across the country and around the world came to centers of the genetic industry to celebrate and to tune in. They came to In diana perhaps primarily because Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette the prominence of H.

Muller, who was something of the high priest of the gene. Queen Elizabeth saw Edward and Wallis as "black sheep". Elizabethdaughter of Edward's brother who would later become the world's longest reigning monarch herself, is known to have despised Wallis and was Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette in stating she "hoped Mrs.

Simpson would remain in France".

Getty Images. Wallis Simpson found herself at the centre of a bizarre sex rumour Getty Images. Meghan Markle is also at the centre of scandalous rumours almost a century later Getty Images. Alice Murphy Alice Murphy is Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette freelance journalist and self-professed news addict. Originally Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette Ireland, Alice is on a Prostitutes Gif-sur-Yvette to visit every country in the world telling stories along the way.

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The Indiana campus was being transformed by the post-war educational challenge. I was never in fact introduced to Kinsey, though I read his Sexual Behavior in the Human Male which appeared amidst great notoriety two years later, without any input from me. Anna Pasternak, author of The Real Wallis Simpson, writes that Wallis was desperately insecure about her sexual identity and "never had sexual intercourse with either of her first two husbands" nor engaged in any kind of penetrative sexual activity.